[This section and the next have a lot of redundancy. This will be fixed.]
Let p be a proposition. The proposition that the robot
does not know p will be written 
, and we
are interested in those mental situations s in which we have
. If 
is consistent with the
robot's knowledge, then we certainly want .
How can we assert that the proposition 
is consistent with the
robot's knowledge? Gödel's theorem tells us that we aren't going to
do it by a formal proof using the robot's knowledge as axioms.
The most perfunctory
approach is for a program to try to prove 
from the
robot's knowledge and fail. Logic programming with negation as
failure does this for Horn theories.
However, we can often do better. If a person or a robot regards a
certain collection of facts as all that are relevant, it suffices to
find a
model of these facts in which p is false.
Consider asserting ignorance of the value of a numerical parameter. The simplest thing is to say that there are at least two values it could have, and therefore the robot doesn't know what it is. However, we often want more, e.g. to assert that the robot knows nothing of its value. Then we must assert that the parameter could have any value, i.e. for each possible value there are models of the relevant facts in which it has that value. Of course, complete ignorance of the values of two parameters requires that there be a model in which each pair of values is taken.
It is likely to be convenient in constructing these models to assume that arithmetic is consistent, i.e. that there are models of arithmetic. Then the set of natural numbers, or equivalently Lisp S-expressions, can be used to construct the desired models. The larger the robot's collection of theories postulated to have models, the easier it will be to show ignorance.
Making a program that reasons about models of its knowledge looks difficult, although it may turn out to be necessary in the long run. The notion of transcending a context may be suitable for this.
For now it seems more straightforward to use second order logic. The idea is to write the axioms of the theory with predicate and function variables and to use existential statements to assert the existence of models. Here's a proposal.
Suppose the robot has some knowledge expressed as an axiomatic theory
and it needs to infer that it cannot infer that President
Clinton is sitting down. We immediately have a problem with Gödel's
incompleteness theorem, because if the theory is inconsistent, then
every sentence is inferrable, and therefore a proof of
non-inferrability of any sentence implies consistency. We get around
this by using another idea of Gödel's--relative
consistency.
For example, suppose we have a first order theory with predicate
symbols 
and let
be an axiom for the theory. The
second order sentence
expresses the consistency of the theory, and the sentence
expresses the consistency of the theory with the added assertion that Clinton is not sitting in the situation s. [In the above, we use upper case of the predicate constant Sits and lower case for the variable sits'.
Then
is then the required assertion of relative consistency.
Sometimes we will want to assert relative consistency under fixed
interpretations of some of the predicate symbols. This would be
important when we have axioms involving these predicates but do not have
formulas for them, e.g. of the form 
. Suppose, for example, that there are three predicate
symbols 
, and 
has a fixed interpretation, and
the other two are to be chosen so as to satisfy the axiom. Then the
assertion of consistency with Clinton sitting takes the form
The straightforward way of proving (23) is to find
substitutions for the predicate variables 
and sits' that make
the matrix of (23) true. The most trivial case of this
would be when the axiom 
does not actually involve
the predicate Sits, and we already have an interpretation 
in which it is satisfied. Then we can define
and (23) follows immediately. This just means that if the new predicate does not interact with what is already known, then the values for which it is true can be assigned arbitrarily.
